The Ordinatio of John Duns Scotus :: Ordinatio. Book 2. Distinctions 1

A. The Opinion of Others

Exposition of the Opinion

71. Here the answer to the question is said to be yes, namely that material substance is singular and individual through quantity.⁵⁰

72. And for this the following sort of reason is put forward,⁵¹ that what belongs first and per se to something belongs to any other thing whatever by reason of that something; but substance and quantity do not make a per se one but only a per accidens one; therefore, singularity will belong to that among these to which first and per se belongs divisibility into parts of the same idea; of this sort is quantity, because it has of itself the capacity to be divided infinitely (Metaphysics 5.13.1020a7-8); therefore what belongs to quantity first and per se does not belong to anything else save by reason of quantity. Such is the division of a species into its individuals, because these dividers [sc. individuals] are not formally of a different idea the way the species are that divide a genus. - But from this further [Godfrey]:⁵² to be divisible into parts of the same idea belongs to something by reason of quantity (from Metaphysics 5 above), and quantity is the principle of division in any nature and the principle of distinction between divided things; therefore it is by quantity that individuals are individually divided from each other. And from this the conclusion is drawn that division into individuals, individuals to which there belongs such a distinction, belongs to a thing through quantity; therefore an individual is an individual through quantity.

73. Further,⁵³ this fire does not differ from that fire save because form differs from form, and form does not differ from form save because it is received in different parts of matter, nor does one part of matter differ from another save because it is under a different part of quantity; therefore the whole distinction of this fire from that fire is reduced to quantity as to the first distinguishing thing.

74. There is confirmation of this argument ⁵⁴ in that a generator does not generate another save because of distinctness of matter; but the matter of the thing generated is necessarily presupposed as a quantum and a quantum under distinct quantity; that it is presupposed as a quantum is plain, because a natural agent cannot act on a non-quantum; that it is presupposed as a quantum with a different quantity from the generator is also plain, because it cannot be a quantum with the quantity of the generator. But this quantity of the thing generated naturally precedes the being of the thing generated, therefore it precedes also the distinction of the generator and the generated; but it would not naturally precede this distinction if it were not naturally and per se required as the distinguisher of the thing generated; therefore etc .

2. Rejection of the Opinion

75. Against this conclusion [n.71] I argue in four ways: first from the identity of numerical idea or of individuation or singularity; second from the order of substance to accidents; third from the idea of ordering in a category - and these three ways will prove in common that no accident can per se be the reason whereby material substance is individuated; the fourth way will be specifically against quantity as concerns the conclusion of the opinion [n.71] and argument will, fifthly, be made specifically against the reasons for the opinion [n.72-73].

a. The First Way: from the Identity of Individuation or Singularity

76. As concerns the first way I expound first what I understand by individuation or numerical unity or singularity. I do not indeed understand an indeterminate unity (by which anything whatever in a species is said to be one in number), but designated unity (as a ‘this’), such that, just as it was said before [n.48] that it is incompossible for an individual to be divided into subjective parts and that what is being asked for is the reason for this incompossibility, so I say that it is incompossible for an individual not to be a ‘this’ designated by this singularity, and that what is being asked for is not the cause of singularity in general but of ‘this’ singularity in particular, designated singularity, namely as it is determinately a ‘this’.

77. Understanding singularity in this manner I give, in the first way, two arguments:

First as follows: an actually existing substance, not changed by any substantial change, cannot become a non-this from a this, because this singularity - according to what was just said [n.76] - cannot be different in the same substance while the substance remains the same and is not substantially changed; but an actually existing substance, when no substantial change has been made in it or altered, can, without contradiction, be under a different quantity and under any different absolute accident whatever; therefore by no such accident is it formally ‘this substance’ with this designated singularity.

78. The minor premise is plain, because there is no contradiction in a substance quantified by this quantity being conserved by God and informed with another quantity; nor will this actually existing substance be, for this reason, changed by any substantial change, because there will be no change save from quantity to quantity. Likewise, if the substance is changed by any accident, it will not be changed with any substantial change; whether this is possible or impossible, it will not for this reason be formally not-this.

79. And if you say that this is a miracle and so is not conclusive against natural reason - on the contrary: there is no miracle in respect of contradictories, for which there is no potency. But it is a contradiction for the same abiding substance to be two substances without substantial change, and this both successively and at once - but this result however follows if a substance were formally ‘this substance’ by some accident; for then, when accident succeeds to accident, the same unchanged substance would be two substances in succession.

80. There is confirmation also for this through a likeness about specific unity, because it is impossible for one abiding substance - not substantially changed - to be at once or successively this species and not this species; therefore by likeness in the case of the issue at hand.

81. Second as follows: of two productions complete in substantial being there cannot be the same first term (the proof is that then each of the two would receive perfect substantial being from the fact the other of the two is complete, and so the same thing would be produced in completeness twice, - and also, if the two productions were not simultaneous, the same per se and actually existing substance would be produced when it already actually exists; so at least in the case of two successive productions the term cannot be the same). But ‘this bread’ was the first term of a generation of bread, and the transubstantiated bread exists with the same abiding quantity; so let another bread be created and affected with the abiding quantity - the consequence is that the term of the creation will be ‘this bread’, the same as the bread that was the term of the generation, because the former bread will be ‘this’ with the numerically same singularity as the latter bread was ‘this’; the consequence also is that ‘this bread’ is the same when transubstantiated and when non-transubstantiated - indeed the consequence is that no bread is transubstantiated (because universal bread is not, and ‘this bread’, the singular, is not, because, ex hypothesi [n.71], this bread remains when the quantity, by which it was formally ‘this’, is unchanged); therefore nothing altogether is transubstantiated into the body of Christ, which is a heretical thing to say.

b. The Second Way: from the Order of Substance to Accidents

82. From the second way I argue as follows: substance is naturally prior to every accident, according to the Philosopher Metaphysics 7.1.1028a10-b2. And his intention concerns the substance that is one of the dividers of being [sc. into categories], so that to expound ‘substance’ there of God or the first substance is not relevant to his intention. For he proves that substance is first in the way he proves that substance is of the number of the dividers of being - that it is prior to every accident, namely such that, in order to determine everything that divides being, it suffices to determine substance as what is first, because the knowledge of accidents is had from the fact they are attributed to substance; but this is only to the purpose about substance in its whole ordering; for nothing posterior to this ordering can be the formal reason whereby something is in that ordering. Therefore, from the idea of the priority of substance universally, as it is something common, sufficient determination is made about the ordering that is the ordering of primary substance, to which this natural priority to any accident belongs; so being a ‘this’ naturally prior to its determination by any accident belongs to primary substance in its idea.

83. And the consequence can be confirmed, because when something is prior to something else, the maximally first of that something is prior to the something else; but the maximally first in substance in general is primary substance; therefore primary substance is simply prior to every accident, and so it is first a ‘this’ before it is determined in any way by anything else.

84. Here it is said [by Godfrey of Fontaines] that although primary substance is prior to quantity in existing yet not in dividing - just as also secondary substance is prior in entity but not in divisibility.

85. On the contrary:

This response destroys itself, because if primary substance is naturally prior to quantity in existing, and if primary substance cannot be understood in its existence unless it be understood as it is a ‘this’, then it is not prior in existing unless it is prior as a ‘this’; therefore it is not a ‘this’ by quantity.

86. Further, form is prior simply to the composite, according to the Philosopher’s proof Metaphysics 7.2.1029a507. Therefore if quantity is the form of primary substance insofar as it is primary substance, then quantity will be simply prior in being to primary substance - because if quantity is not the form in being, then it is not the form in dividing either, or in the unity that belongs to primary substance insofar as primary substance is such a being (for any entity is followed by its proper unity, which unity does not have any other proper cause of itself than the cause of entity).

87. Further, substance, in the way that it is the subject for every accident, is naturally prior to every accident. For, insofar as it is the subject, it is proved to be prior in definition to every accident, for it is by way of addition thus posited in the order of any definition; but as it is the subject it is ‘this substance’, because, according to the Philosopher Physics 2.3.195b25-26 and Metaphysics 1.1.981a16-19, singulars are causes of singulars (in any genus of cause), so a singular subject is cause of a singular accident. And there is an especial confirmation of this as to an accident in an accident, because that is present first in a singular, according to the Philosopher Metaphysics 5.9.1017b35-1018a3 , ch. ‘On the Same’.

88. Further, everything that is prior in nature to something else is prior to it in duration, in the way that - as far as concerns it of itself - there is in it no repugnance of contradiction in its being able to be prior in duration to its posterior; for priority of nature universally includes in the prior thing the ability, without contradiction, to exist in the absence of its posterior, from Metaphysics 5.11.1019a2-4 ch. ‘On the Prior’. Therefore any substance (as far as concerns itself) can, without contradiction, exist prior in duration to any accident, and thus prior to quantity.

c. The Third Way: from the Idea of Ordering within a Category

89. From the third way I argue thus: in any ordering in a category are all the things pertaining to that ordering, after removal of anything else whatever that is not essentially part of the ordering (the proof of this is that two orderings are primarily diverse, and so nothing of one ordering is the sort it is through the ordering of the other); but to the ordering as it is complete both upwards and downwards (according to the Philosopher Posterior Analytics 1. 20.82a21-24 [n.63]), just as there belongs to it the first predicate of which nothing is predicated, so there belongs to it the lowest subject for which nothing is subject; therefore the singular or the individual exists in any ordering by nothing in any other ordering.

90. Further second: in any ordering, after removal of everything whatever of another ordering, there exists the idea of species - for no opinion imagines that a species is in some genus by reason of an accident, speaking of absolute things; but it is of the idea of a species that it is predicable of several things differing in number; therefore in any ordering there can be found something intrinsically, individual and singular, of which the species is predicated - or at any rate there can be found something ‘not predicable of many’ (otherwise, if nothing of this sort can be subject, then nothing in this ordering will be a most specific species, in whose idea is contained that it can be predicate).

91. Further third: the lowest that can be a subject and is a subject receives per se the predication of any predicable whatever, just as the first predicable is predicated per se of any predicate in the ordering whatever; but a per accidens being, insofar as it is per accidens, receives the predication per se of nothing; therefore the lowest thing that can be subject cannot be a per accidens being (a per accidens being is an aggregate of things of diverse genera, according to the Philosopher Metaphysics 5.6.1015b16-36, ch. ‘On One’).

92. Further fourth: when something is precisely of a nature to belong to something according to some idea, then, whatever it belongs to essentially according to that idea, it belongs to simply and essentially according to that idea; but to be a universal in the ordering of the genus of substance belongs to something precisely insofar as it is part of that ordering, after removal of everything that is part of another ordering; therefore, what ‘commonness’ essentially belongs to insofar as it is part of the ordering, belongs to it simply and essentially. But however much it is contracted by something of another genus, nothing about it pertaining to its own ordering is taken away; for however much Socrates is determined by white or black (to which he was in potency), Socrates is not more determinately in the genus of substance than he was before, because he was before a ‘this’. Therefore, however much a nature in the genus of substance is posited to be contracted down to individuals by something of another genus, the nature will remain formally common (contracted just as when not contracted) - and therefore to posit that something common becomes an individual by what is of another genus is to posit that it is common and individual or singular at the same time.

93. So as to flee, perhaps, from the arguments of these two ways [nn.82, 89-92], the position about quantity is held in another manner [Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines]: namely in this manner, that just as the extension of the matter is different in nature from the nature of the quantity of the matter and adds nothing over and above the essence of matter, so the designation of the matter, which the matter has causally through quantity, is different from the designation of the quantity, being naturally prior to the designation that matter has through quantity; and this designation is different from the designation that belongs to quantity, but it is not different from substance - so that, just as matter does not have parts though the nature of quantity (because a part of matter is matter), so designated substance is only substance (for ‘designation’ only states a mode of disposition of substance).

94. To the contrary. This position seems to include contradictories in two ways.

First, because it is impossible for anything dependent naturally on a posterior to be the same naturally as a prior, because it would be both prior and not prior; but substance, for them, is prior naturally to quantity; therefore anything pre-requiring, in whatever way, the nature of quantity cannot be the same as substance. So it is not the case that this designation is a designation of substance and yet is caused by quantity.

95. Proof of the major: where there is a true and real identity (even if it is not formal), there it is impossible for the one to be and the other not to be, because then the really same thing would both be and not be; but it is possible for the naturally prior to be without the naturally posterior; therefore, and as a result, much more so without that which remains from, or is caused by, the natural posterior.

96. Further, that which is necessarily a condition of the cause in its causing cannot be possessed by the thing caused, because then the cause - insofar as it is sufficient for causing - would be caused by the caused, and the caused would be the cause of itself and would, to this extent, be able to give to the cause its own causation; but singularity - or singular designation - is a necessary condition in a substance for causing a quantity, because (as argued [n.87]) a caused singular requires a singular cause; therefore it is impossible for the designation of a designated substance or of a singular to be from a singular quantity (or to be from the caused) and not from the substance insofar as the substance is singular.

97. Further, what is it for quantity to leave remaining, or to cause, such a mode of being in a substance? If it is nothing but what was present before in the quantity, then in no way is the designation through quantity, because the designation simply of substance would naturally precede quantity. - But if it is something else, I ask how it is caused by quantity and in what genus of cause? The only genus it seems possible to assign is that of efficient cause; but quantity is not an active form; therefore etc .

98. Further, why does quantity leave such a mode remaining in the substance, the same really as the substance, more than quality does, like whiteness? There seems to be no reason, because just as whiteness itself is a form in the surface and is so without the mediation of any other form that is left remaining, so it seems that quantity is a form in the substance whereby the substance is a quantum and never leaves any other form remaining.

d. The Fourth Way: on the Part of Quantity

99. From the fourth way I argue as follows: the quantity by which a substance is a ‘this’, so designated, is either a terminated quantity or a non-terminated quantity. It is not a terminated quantity because this follows the being of the form in the matter and, consequently, the singularity of the substance - because if substance is the cause of quantity as terminated, ‘this substance’ is the cause of the quantity as it is ‘this terminated quantity’. If non-terminated quantity is the cause of this substance being a ‘this’ - on the contrary, this quantity, namely non-terminated quantity, remains the same in a body when generated and when corrupted; therefore it is not the cause of any designation of terminated quantity.

100. If you say that the consequence does not hold, because quantity is not posited as the cause of singularity save on the presupposition of specific unity, but a body when generated and corrupted is not of the same species - on the contrary: I posit that from water first fire is generated, and second from fire water is generated. There is the same quantity in the first water corrupted and in the second water generated - and not just nonterminated quantity but also terminated quantity, because it can have from the form the same term; or at any rate the same non-terminated quantity suffices, and that, for you, is the cause of singularity, on the presupposition of specific unity. Therefore the first water and the second water are numerically the same ‘this water’ - which seems impossible, because the numerically same individual is not made to return by natural action, from Physics 5.4.228a4-6 and On Generation 2.11.338b16-18.

101. Further, if quantity is what first individuates substance, then it itself - in itself - must be first ‘this quantity’ and numerically distinct of itself from ‘that quantity’, just as this substance is numerically distinct from that substance; but in that case your proposition is not true, namely that ‘every formal difference is specific difference’; for this quantity and that are forms, therefore they differ specifically.

102. And if you except from this fundamental proposition the quantity of a building going to ruin, how will formal difference be proved to be specific difference [nn.71-73 footnotes]?⁵⁵ For any quantity adduced from the form will equally fit the proposition, since a quantity is a form just as also are the other categories.

103. And if you say, ‘on the contrary, quantity has of itself a determinate position, and it is by this distinct of itself from that quantity’ - on the contrary: of which position are you speaking? Either of predicamental position (which is one of the categories), and this category is naturally posterior to quantity.⁵⁶ Or of position as it is a difference of quantity, insofar as a quantity is said to be made up of parts having position - and then the same question arises as before [n.101], namely why this position of this quantity differs from that position of that quantity; and this question is ‘how this quantity differs numerically from that’, and so it seems that you are assigning the idea to itself; for the fact that the permanent and continuous parts - within the very whole - are in themselves distinct from the permanent and continuous parts in the whole (and these two features, namely continuity and permanence, are included in position as position is a difference of quantity) - this fact is not more known than the fact that this quantity differs in itself from that quantity.

104. Further, all the arguments used against the opinion in the first question, to prove that flesh is not of itself a ‘this’ [nn.7-28], can be used the same to prove that quantity is not of itself a ‘this’; and it is manifest that the idea of line is of itself common to this line and to that, nor is there a greater contradiction in thinking of line under the idea of a universal than in thinking flesh so. And line even has some real unity less than numerical unity, just as flesh also has, on the ground of the same proofs as were set down in the second argument against the opinion of the first question [nn.8-28]. It is plain too that line and surface are of the same idea in this water and in that; why then is this water ‘this water’ and a singular? And I am not speaking of a vague and indeterminate singularity but of a designated and determinate one.

e. Against the Reasons for the Opinion

105. Against the reasons for the opinion [nn.72-73] I argue thus:

First against the first opinion [n.72], because quantity is not the reason for divisibility in individuals:

For whatever is the formal idea for any divisibility is formally in that which is divisible by this division; but quantity is not formally in a species as it is divisible into subjective parts; therefore it is not the formal idea for the divisibility of such a whole into such parts.

106. There is a confirmation for this argument, that a universal whole, which is divided into individuals and subjective parts, is predicated of any of those subjective parts (so that any subjective part is that universal [sc. as ‘animal’ is predicated of ‘horse’ and ‘man’ and of ‘this horse’ and ‘this man’]) - but quantitative parts, into which the division of a continuous whole is made, never receive the predication of the whole that is divided into them. And even if the division of a homogeneous whole into quantitative parts and the division of a species (or of a universal whole) go together, yet they are not divisions of the same divided whole, because a quantitative whole is divided by quantitative division and is not predicated of any of the parts dividing it, just as neither is a heterogeneous quantum predicated of the parts that divide it; for, universally, no quantitative part is the whole of which it is the part; but there goes, along with this, also the fact that there are many individuals possessing the same common being, and this common being is divided into individuals by another division; and the common being was not the quantum that was divided by quantitative division. There is then a different whole that is divided by this division and by that; and it is divided per accidens into the same parts, but formally into parts of different ideas, in respect of this [universal] whole and of that [quantitative] whole - because with respect to the latter the parts are integral parts, and with respect to the former they are subjective parts.⁵⁷

107. And as for what is taken from the Philosopher [n.72], one must say that the Philosopher does not say that a quantity is divided into parts of the same idea, but that “a quantity is divisible into the things present in it, an individual of which, or each of which, is of a nature to be a thing and this thing.” He says ‘into the things present in it’ as the things that compose the whole they are in, and so not into subjective parts, which are not in it in this way; ‘each of which’ (if the division is into two) or ‘an individual of which’ (if the division is into several) ‘is of a nature to be a thing’, namely per se existing in the way that the whole is (because to the extent a thing is a quantitative part dividing the whole, to that extent it can per se exist just like the whole does that is divided), and this against the division of a composite into matter and form; ‘and this thing’ - against the division of a genus into its species. And if a number were composed of diverse numbers, it would not be against the idea of number for it to be divided into numbers of different idea [sc. if 6 were composed of 2 and 4, which are of different idea]; and in the same way it would not be against the arm for it to be divided into parts of different idea if it were composed of two cubits or three cubits - and these are different in species; so too it would not be against a quantity for the division of its subject to be into parts of different idea.

108. I concede the fact universally, then, that although a whole does not require to be divided into parts of the same idea, yet it does not require the parts to be of a distinct idea, because, insofar as the parts are parts of a quantity, they are not of a different idea; for although head, heart, and hand are quantitative parts and of different ideas, yet they are not parts of a different idea insofar precisely as they are parts of a quantity.

109. In the way, then, that it is true that a quantity may be divided into parts of the same idea (although this cannot be got from the Philosopher [n.107]), this is altogether not to the purpose, because the division is not into parts which include the idea of the divided thing, but into parts which were present in the divided thing - and they do have one idea, not the idea of the divided thing, but of something common to it and to themselves [sc. the idea of 12 inches is not included in the idea of its 2 inch divisions, but only the idea of length is common to them all]; but a species is divided into parts of the same idea, namely because they include the idea of the divided thing [sc. as ‘this man’ and ‘that man’ both include ‘man’] and not something else that is of a different idea, common to the divided thing and the things that divide it.

110. Further, I argue against the second argument [n.73]: the generator qua generator (with everything else removed) is distinguished from the generated qua generated (with everything else removed from the generated), because it is unintelligible for the same thing to generate itself (even in divine reality a person does not generate himself); but the generator qua generator does not include quantity as it includes its proper generative principle; nor does the generated qua generated include quantity as the per se or formal term of generation; therefore when both quantities are removed, namely the quantities of generator and generated, the latter substance is distinguished numerically from the former.

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